February 12, 2025

General

Being overweight tops tobacco as risk to Australians’ health

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More than one in three cases of disease and injury in Australia in 2024 could have been avoided, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) study found.

The AIHW listed 20 risk factors including alcohol use, physical inactivity, poor diet, being overweight or obese and tobacco smoking.

While tobacco use had previously been the leading
risk factor contributing to disease burden, a 41 per cent decrease in the rate of its contribution since 2003 has seen being overweight become the most significant factor.

An estimated 8.3 per cent of total disease burden in 2024 was due to overweight (including obesity) and 7.6 per cent was due to tobacco use (excluding vaping). This was followed by dietary risks (4.8 per cent) and high blood pressure (4.4 per cent).

“While Australians are living longer on average, years lived in ill health are also growing, resulting in little change in the proportion of life spent in full health. This contributes to the growing demand and pressures on the health system and services,” said AIHW.

In line with previous years, cancer was the leading group of diseases causing burden in 2024 (16.4 per cent), with 91.3 per cent of this burden fatal and 8.7 per cent non-fatal.

The leading specific causes of disease burden were coronary heart disease (5.5 per cent), dementia (4.5 per cent), back pain and problems (4.3 per cent) and anxiety disorders (3.9 per cent).

Could mpox become established in the Indo-Pacific?

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Once thought to be mainly contained to Africa, cases of mpox (previously known as monkeypox) have been detected in Sweden, Pakistan and the Philippines over the last few days.

This follows the World Health Organization’s decision last week that the recent upsurge in mpox cases warranted it to be declared a public health emergency of international concern, highlighting the rapid spread of the virus and its potential for severe health impacts.

The last time this happened was in July 2022.

Of particular concern, testing has revealed the case in Sweden is the more virulent clade 1b subtype, the first time the strain has been detected outside Africa.
It’s only a matter of time before mpox cases increase across the Indo-Pacific, although the WHO is stressing we know a lot more about this virus and how it spreads than we did about COVID-19.

Mpox is an infectious disease caused by the monkeypox virus, which belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus. This genus — or family of viruses — also includes the variola virus, the virus that causes smallpox.

The first documented case of mpox in humans was reported in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Since then, mpox has been classified into two primary clades: clade 1, previously known as the Central African strain, which is more virulent; and clade 2, previously known as the West African strain, which is generally less severe.

Historically cases of mpox were rare outside of Africa, however a significant global surge in cases began in May 2022 and has been followed by another increase this year, as the number of cases in Australia shows.

How mpox is spread

The transmission of the monkeypox virus occurs through several primary routes, with human-to-human transmission being the most significant.

This transmission typically involves direct contact with the lesions or bodily fluids of an infected individual, particularly during intimate interactions.

Respiratory droplets can also facilitate transmission during prolonged face-to-face contact. Additionally, fomites — contaminated surfaces — can serve as vectors for the virus.

Animal-to-human transmission remains a critical route, often occurring through direct contact with infected animals, such as rodents or non-human primates, particularly in regions where bushmeat is consumed. Vertical transmission from mother to fetus during pregnancy has also been documented.

The epidemiology of mpox has notably shifted since the outbreak in May 2022, with a marked increase in cases reported among men who have sex with men, indicating a change in transmission dynamics.

The clinical presentation of mpox includes symptoms such as fever, lymphadenopathy (swollen or enlarged lymph nodes) and characteristic skin lesions. One good thing for now, is that people with mpox can only transmit the disease when they are showing symptoms.

Although mpox is less lethal than smallpox, it still poses significant health risks, particularly to vulnerable populations.

Recent outbreaks and the global response

The emergence of mpox cases in non-endemic regions has raised concerns about public health preparedness.

Countries like Australia are enhancing surveillance and public health education to monitor potential cases and prevent outbreaks. China will be monitoring people and goods entering the country for mpox for the next six months, it announced last week.

The WHO’s designation of mpox as a public health emergency underscores the urgency of addressing the disease’s potential for rapid spread, particularly in populations with low immunity due to the end of smallpox vaccination programs.

In Australia, where widespread immunity against orthopoxviruses is lacking, vigilance is essential to mitigate the risk of mpox entering the country, especially through international travel.

The recent emergence of the more virulent clade 1 strain of mpox raises significant concerns about its potential to escalate into a global pandemic, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region.

This strain has been linked to higher mortality rates and increased transmissibility.

While the Indo-Pacific has been one of the regions least affected by mpox in the past, due to its interconnectedness and varying healthcare capacities, it could face substantial risks if the virus spreads unchecked.

The appearance of clade 1 in Sweden indicates that the virus can cross borders easily, posing a threat to countries with less robust public health infrastructure.

Current treatment options

Vaccination strategies for mpox significantly differ between its two primary clades, clade 1 and clade 2, due to variations in virulence, transmission dynamics and outbreak contexts.

Clade 1, endemic to Central Africa, has a historically higher mortality rate of up to 10 percent and is primarily transmitted zoonotically — from an animal to a human — with limited human-to-human spread.

By contrast, clade 2, particularly the subtypes clade 2a and 2b, has a lower mortality rate of about 3.6 percent and was responsible for the global outbreak that began in 2022, spreading predominantly through human contact, especially within sexual networks.

Vaccination efforts for clade 1 target high-risk populations in endemic regions, emphasising rapid vaccination following exposure.

Vaccines such as JYNNEOS and ACAM2000 originally developed for smallpox, are expected to provide cross-protection against clade I mpox, although specific efficacy data is limited.

Public health education on zoonotic transmission is also crucial to prevent outbreaks.

For clade 2, vaccination strategies have been more aggressive, especially for clade 2b, with vaccines like JYNNEOS deployed in non-endemic regions targeting men who have sex with men and other high-risk groups.

This includes both pre-exposure and post-exposure prophylaxis, supported by global efforts to establish vaccine stockpiles and ensure equitable distribution — particularly in Africa where shortages have been reported.

Antiviral treatments such as tecovirimat have been found to be ineffective, highlighting the need for urgent further research into effective therapeutics for mpox management.

Where do we go from here?

The current global mpox outbreak has underscored critical lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in the areas of communication, equity and preparedness.

Effective responses require clear, empathetic communication to build trust and reduce stigma around the disease, especially among marginalised communities disproportionately affected by outbreaks.

Rapid containment measures, including case identification, contact tracing and isolation, have proven essential in managing spread, mirroring successful strategies from COVID.

The COVID pandemic highlighted the importance of leveraging technology for information dissemination, ensuring equitable access to resources.
A coordinated government response is vital, emphasising collaboration across all levels of public health agencies to address emerging inequalities.

The necessity of stockpiling vaccines and ensuring their equitable distribution has become evident, as seen in the challenges already faced during this mpox outbreak.

The most effective strategy right now is to send mpox vaccines to Africa to try and stop the disease from spreading.

Vaccination campaigns must be comprehensive and community-engaged to enhance uptake and address vaccine hesitancy.

Dr Vinod Balasubramaniam is an Associate Professor of Molecular Virology and Leader of the Infection and Immunity Research Strength in the Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences at Monash University Malaysia.

Originally published under Creative Commons by 360info™.

ICN calls for bold reforms to revolutionise primary health care 

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The International Council of Nurses (ICN) has launched a new position statement and discussion paper, calling for a transformative shift in how nursing services are delivered worldwide.  

This landmark statement, accompanied by a comprehensive discussion paper entitled Nursing and Primary Health Care – Towards the realisation of Universal Health Coverage, emphasises the urgent need for revolutionising nursing in response to increasing global healthcare demands. 

The ICN’s call to action highlights the critical role nurses play in healthcare systems and outlines the structural changes needed to support nurses in delivering high-quality care. With an aging population, rising chronic disease rates, and ongoing challenges such as pandemics and health inequities, the ICN stressed that the need for traditional models of nursing care to adapt.  

ICN President Dr Pamela Cipriano noted the importance that Primary Health Care plays in achieving quality universal healthcare across the globe. 

“In the the 2018 Astana Declaration, the nations of the world agreed that primary health care is the only way to achieve meaningful Universal Health Coverage. I know that governments are increasingly aware of the importance of a well-supported nursing and healthcare workforce [which] are essential for primary health care,” Dr Cipriano said. 

“Our primary health care position statement shows governments and health care organisations the changes and investments needed to empower nurses as the key to making real, substantial strides towards the goal of Universal Health Coverage through expansion of primary health care by 2030.  

“It is time to unleash the untapped potential of nurses so that they can lead this critical journey towards a better future for all,” she continued.  

The discussion paper provided a summary of the key positions statements and documents produced by the ICN and other nursing and international health organisations relating to the subjects of primary health and universal health coverage. It discussed the ideas of integrating new technologies, expanding the roles of nurses in primary care, and ensuring nurses’ roles in shaping health policies as being crucial to the achievement of universal health coverage. 

The statement and discussion paper were launched at the 13th ICN Nurse Practitioner/Advanced Practice Nursing Network Conference in Aberdeen, Scotland in early September. Feedback is currently being sought from member organisations, including the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Federation.   

 

Meningococcal: what to know about this potentially deadly disease affecting Australian children

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Three children in far north Queensland have recently become unwell with meningococcal disease, a life-threatening infection caused by the bacteria Neisseria meningitidis.

Meanwhile, an adult and a child have been hospitalised with meningococcal in Western Australia.

So far there have been more than 80 meningococcal infections recorded across Australia in 2024. Although meningococcal disease can occur all year round, in Australia this infection occurs most commonly in late winter and early spring.

So far there have been more than 80 meningococcal infections recorded across Australia in 2024. Although meningococcal disease can occur all year round, in Australia this infection occurs most commonly in late winter and early spring.

What is meningococcal disease?

Neisseria meningitidis is among the bacteria that frequently live quite harmlessly at the back of our throats, and can be spread from one person to another via saliva. Sometimes, these bacteria can invade the body via the bloodstream and cause serious disease (called “invasive meningococcal disease”).

Although anyone can get meningococcal disease, certain groups are at higher risk. These include infants, toddlers, adolescents, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, young people who live in close quarters, and people who smoke.

Meningococcal disease most frequently presents as a serious bloodstream infection (septicaemia) and can also spread to the brain (meningitis).

Symptoms of meningococcal disease can include fever, shakes, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, and joint and muscle pain. If meningitis occurs, headaches, neck stiffness and sensitivity to light are also common.

Sometimes, meningococcal disease can also cause a characteristic rash that doesn’t disappear when pressure is applied. It may start as red or purple pin-prick spots, or as small bruises. But not everyone with meningococcal disease will present with a rash. And when it does occur, it’s often a late sign, indicating the infection is well advanced.

Infants and young children may not have the classic symptoms listed above. Instead, they may have difficulty feeding, irritability, a high-pitched cry, pale or blotchy skin, or tiredness and floppiness.

While meningococcal disease is rare, it’s sudden and unpredictable. It’s notorious for how quickly it can progress to serious illness, often in otherwise healthy people. It has been described as the disease that can leave someone “well at breakfast – and dead by dinner”.

Meningococcal disease requires urgent medical treatment, particularly antibiotics to stop the infection from progressing. Even with excellent medical care, one in 20 young children who contract the disease may die, and around one-third of children and adolescents who survive the disease will develop permanent complications.

While meningococcal disease can be contagious, it’s less contagious than many other infections (such as influenza or measles). The bacteria can spread via respiratory or throat secretions (saliva or spit), and person-to-person transmission generally requires prolonged, close contact.

We have effective vaccines

There are different types of the N. meningitidis bacteria, called serogroups. The serogroups denote different structures of the surface of the bacteria and are referred to by letters of the alphabet. Serogroups A, B, C, W and Y cause most of the meningococcal disease around the world.

Two main types of meningococcal vaccines are available in Australia. One type protects against serogroups A, C, W and Y (ACWY), and the other type protects against serogroup B.

The ACWY vaccine has been available for free under Australia’s National Immunisation Program since 2018, and is given at 12 months of age, and at age 14–16.

The meningococcal B vaccine is recommended for all children but is only available for free under the National Immunisation Program for certain people. This includes Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children under two and people with certain medical conditions.

Queensland recently introduced a state-funded program to provide free meningococcal B vaccines to all infants and children aged six weeks to two years, and adolescents aged 15 to 19.

South Australia also has a state-funded meningococcal B vaccination program for infants under one, alongside a school program for year 10 students.

In other parts of Australia, for children not meeting the high-risk criteria, the meningococcal B vaccine needs to be purchased on a private script. Many parents aren’t aware of this vaccine, and cost can be a barrier too.

Most infants who start their meningococcal B vaccine course at less than one year old will require three doses, while any child aged over one will require two doses for optimal protection.

Why are we still seeing cases?

Australia has achieved good vaccine coverage against serogroups A, C, W and Y, and there are now very few cases of meningococcal disease caused by these serogroups (although the adult case recently reported in WA had serogroup Y).

However, the number of people vaccinated against meningococcal B is much lower. This is partly because this vaccine is not part of the National Immunisation Program (other than for specific high-risk groups). But even in states with funded programs, there appears to be a lack of awareness.

Despite Queensland’s rollout of the free meningococcal B vaccine program this year, uptake of the vaccine has been low. There are 40,000 young children under two and 386,000 adolescents aged 15–19 in Queensland who are yet to be fully immunised.

So there’s less community-wide immunity to meningococcal B compared to other serogroups. Meningococcal B is now responsible for more than 80% of all meningococcal disease cases in Australia – including the three children recently affected in Queensland and the child in WA.

The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners has urged families to book in their eligible children for vaccination against meningococcal disease via free state-based programs in Queensland and SA.

In other states, families can request meningococcal B vaccination from their GP, and some hospital services provide “drop in” immunisation clinics to help families catch-up on missed vaccines, including the meningococcal B vaccine. Often hospital pharmacies will provide it at the lowest cost price.The Conversation

Phoebe Williams, Paediatrician & Infectious Diseases Physician; Senior Lecturer & NHMRC Fellow, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney; Monica Lahra, Senior Staff Specialist Microbiologist NSW Health Pathology; Conjoint Professor, UNSW Medicine, UNSW Sydney; Rae-Anne Hardie, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Children’s Hospital Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, and Saskia van der Kooi, Research Officer, National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Refugees in Australia are miles behind in health and wellbeing outcomes. Here’s why

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Health outcomes for refugees and people with humanitarian visas are far worse than the general Australian population. They are more likely to self-report long-term conditions, including diabetes (80% higher), kidney disease (80%), stroke (40%) and dementia (30%).

Among hospitalisations for refugees and humanitarian migrants, one in 14 are for potentially preventable conditions. New data shows that when it comes to COVID, they are five times more likely than permanent migrants to be hospitalised.

And those who’ve been held for long periods in immigration detention shoulder significant health-care costs – an estimated 50% higher than other asylum seekers.

Why is the health of refugees and humanitarian entrants so much worse than the rest of the country? And what can we do about it?

Higher risk of physical and mental health issues

Health is a fundamental human right. But refugees and humanitarian entrants in Australia face multiple challenges that limit their ability to fully enjoy this right.

Compared with the rest of the population, people in Australia who hold humanitarian visas are at a higher risk of physical and mental health issues. Factors contributing to this are complex, interrelated and interconnected.

People fleeing persecution are more likely to have experienced significant human rights violations, torture and trauma, which impacts their mental health and wellbeing.

While in exile, they are also likely to have experienced precarious living conditions with limited access to water, sanitation and hygiene, as well as food insecurity and limited access to basic health care.

These can lead to significant health issues. The most common include:

  • mental illnesses
  • nutritional deficiencies
  • infectious diseases
  • under-immunisation
  • poor oral and eye health
  • poorly managed chronic diseases
  • delayed growth and development in children.

These conditions may require immediate care or long-term management – or both.

One study measured the burden of mental health diseases – such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) – on refugees and humanitarian migrants in Australia over five years. It found more than 34% had either PTSD or elevated psychological distress.

Persistent mental illness was associated with loneliness, discrimination, insecure housing, financial hardship and chronic health conditions.

3 gaps for refugees

People from refugee backgrounds have unique health and cultural beliefs, practices, and needs that are often not well understood by health-care providers. These unique needs can affect the quality of care they receive.

1. Language barriers

Most refugees and humanitarian entrants have limited English proficiency and some have limited written literacy in their own languages.

This can make navigating health-care settings a challenge. Difficulties understanding diagnoses, treatment options, and the need for follow-up can especially complicate chronic health issues such as diabetes and high blood pressure, which need ongoing monitoring and treatment.

While the government funds translating and interpreting services, research shows they are often underused and inefficient. Accessing interpreting for smaller or emerging groups can also be more challenging, as services tend to cater to established language groups.

Language barriers can also limit job opportunities and lead to financial pressure, with a ripple effect in overall health and wellbeing.

2. Health literacy

Health literacy is the ability to access, understand and use health information to make more informed decisions about our health. It is linked to improved self-reported health status, lower health-care costs, increased health knowledge, and reduced hospitalisation.

Some refugees and humanitarian entrants have limited health literacy, associated with poor health outcomes.

A study we undertook during the early stages of the pandemic with Arabic, Karen, Dari and Dinka-speaking refugees showed participants with lower health literacy were less willing to receive COVID vaccines. Their scepticism about the vaccine and the virus was further affirmed by conspiracy theories and misinformation online.

3. Continuity of care

Patients from refugee backgrounds can fall through the cracks when services are not well coordinated or can’t be followed up.

For example, Australia’s National Immunisation Program schedule for children is very comprehensive compared with other countries. But many childhood vaccinations require multiple doses over time. When the need for follow-up appointments is not communicated properly – or recall systems aren’t culturally appropriate – they may be missed.

Looking to the future

Improving health and wellbeing for refugees and humanitarian entrants is complex. We need strong foreign policy that promotes stability and basic services overseas, as well as humanitarian aid for crises.

In Australia, non-medical factors also influence health outcomes. They include housing, secure employment, working conditions, social inclusion, safety from discrimination and general literacy, as well as health literacy.

We need to recognise and draw on the protective factors that are strongly linked to the health and wellbeing of people from refugee backgrounds. These include things such as social connectedness, resilience, a sense of belonging and identity, and adapting to a new culture.

We need further research into what helps and hinders refugee health and wellbeing. It must involve people of refugee backgrounds, community organisations and academic institutions.

Our health-care services need to be responsive, sensitive and inclusive. This is imperative in meeting the unique cultural and social needs of people of refugee backgrounds.The Conversation

Abela Mahimbo, Senior Lecturer in Public Health, University of Technology Sydney; Andrew Hayen, Professor of Biostatistics, University of Technology Sydney, and Angela Dawson, Professor of Public Health, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

WHO has declared mpox a global health emergency. What happens next?

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The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared mpox a public health emergency of international concern, after rising cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the potential for further spread.

This now triggers a coordinated international response to an extraordinary event and the mobilisation of resources, such as vaccines and diagnostic testing, to curb the spread of this infectious disease.

But WHO has not declared mpox a pandemic. Rather, the measures it has triggered are designed to prevent it from becoming one.

What triggered this latest alert?

Mpox, once known as monkeypox, is a viral infection closely related to smallpox. Initial symptoms include a fever, headache, swelling of the lymph nodes and muscle ache. A typical rash follows, mainly on the face, hands and feet.

The spread of mpox through certain African countries led the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention to declare earlier this week mpox a public health emergency of continental security. This is the first time the organisation has issued such an alert since it was established in 2017.

The situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in central Africa has been particularly worrying for more than a year.

There are two types or clades of mpox. Clade II, which originates in west Africa, is less severe. It has a fatality rate of up to 1% (in other words, roughly one in 100 are expected to die from it). But clade I, from central Africa, has a fatality rate of up to 10% (up to one in ten die). This compares to a 0.7% fatality rate for the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is seeing large epidemics of the more deadly clade I mpox.

Mpox is endemic in some parts of central and west Africa, where the virus exists in animals and can spread to humans. Outbreaks have been increasing, with more human-to-human spread, since 2017.

This is partly due to very low levels of immunity to the mpox virus, which is related to the virus that causes smallpox. Mass vaccination against smallpox ceased more than 40 years ago globally, resulting in minimal immunity in populations today against mpox.

The WHO designation announced this week relates to the clade I. Not only does this have a higher fatality rate, it has new mutations that enhance spread between people. These changes, and the global lack of immunity to mpox, makes the world’s population vulnerable to the virus.

There are two different epidemics

In 2022, an epidemic of mpox swept through non-endemic countries, including beyond Africa. This was a variant of clade II originating from Nigeria, called clade IIb. This was sexually transmitted, predominantly affecting men who have sex with men, and had a low fatality rate.

That epidemic peaked in 2022, with vaccines made available to people at risk in high-income countries, but there has been an uptick in 2024.

At the same time, large clade I epidemics were occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but with far less attention.

Vaccines were not available there, even in 2023, when there were 14,626 cases and 654 deaths. Mortality was 4.5%, and higher in children.

In fact, most cases and deaths in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been children. This means most transmission there is non-sexual and is likely to have occurred through close contact or respiratory aerosols.

However, in 2023 an outbreak in a non-endemic part of the country, South Kivu in the east, appeared to be by sexual transmission, indicating more than one epidemic and different transmission modes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

By mid-2024, there were already more cases in the country than all of 2023 – more than 15,600 cases and 537 deaths.

Testing capacity is low in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, most cases are not confirmed by lab testing, and the data we have are from a small sample of genomic sequences from the Kamituga region of South Kivu.

This show mutations to the clade I virus around September 2023, to a variant termed clade Ib, which is more readily transmissible between people. We do not have much data to compare these viruses with the viruses causing cases in the rest of the country.

Mpox is spreading internationally

In the past month, the virus has spread to countries that share a border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo – Rwanda and Burundi. It has also spread to other east African countries, such as Kenya and Uganda. None of these countries have had mpox cases previously.

In an interconnected, mobile world, cases may spread to other continents, as mpox did in 2018 from Nigeria to the United Kingdom and other countries.

A few travel-related cases between 2018 and 2019 may have led to the large multi-country 2022 clade IIb epidemic.

We have vaccines, but not where they are needed

As the mpox virus and smallpox viruses are related (they are both orthopoxviruses), smallpox vaccines offer protection against mpox. These vaccines were used to control the 2022 clade IIb epidemic.

However, most of the world has never been vaccinated, and has no immunity to mpox.

The newer vaccine (called Jynneos in some countries and Imvamune or Imvanex in others) is effective. However, supplies are limited, and vaccine is scarce in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

WHO’s declaration of mpox as a public health emergency of international concern will help mobilise vaccines to where they are needed. The Africa Centres for Disease Control had already begun negotiations to secure 200,000 doses of vaccine, which is a fraction of what is required to control the epidemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

What happens now?

Ultimately, a serious epidemic anywhere in the world is a concern for all of us, as it can spread globally through travel, as we saw with the COVID pandemic.

Controlling it at the source is the best measure, and WHO’s latest declaration will help mobilise the required resources.

Surveillance for spread of this more serious version of mpox is also essential, bearing in mind that many countries do not have the capacity for widespread testing. So we’ll have to rely on “suspected cases”, based on a clinical definition, to keep track of the epidemic.

Open-source epidemic intelligence – such as using AI to monitor trends in rash and fever illness – can also be used as an early warning system in countries with weak health systems or delayed reporting of cases.

A further complication is that 20-30% of people with mpox may simultaneously have chickenpox, an unrelated infection that also causes a rash. So an initial diagnosis of chickenpox (which is easier to test for) does not rule out mpox.

Effective communication and tackling push-back against public health measures and disinformation is also key. We saw how important this was during the COVID pandemic.

Now, WHO will coordinate the global mpox response, focusing on equity in disease prevention and access to diagnostics and vaccines. It is up to individual countries to do their best to comply with the International Health Regulations, and the protocols for how such a global emergency are managed.

The World Health Organization has more information about mpox, including symptoms and treatment. For information about vaccine access and availability, contact your local health department or doctor, as this varies from country to country.The Conversation

C Raina MacIntyre, Professor of Global Biosecurity, NHMRC L3 Research Fellow, Head, Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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